Testing effect

When you try to recall some detail from memory, that act strengthens your memory of that detail. When exploited as a learning activity, this is called “retrieval practice.”

Experiment has demonstrated this effect even when the correct answer is not provided (though Retrieval practice may be less effective without feedback), and even when the test-taker is given “open-book” access to find a correct answer. The effect has been demonstrated in many fields and at many age levels.

This suggests a significantly different role for tests. In typical classrooms, teachers and students imagine that learning happens during lectures, or while reading the material. The tests are there to assess that learning. But in fact, the tests themselves are an important part of the learning process.

Versus other study activities

Retrieval practice leads to more durable long-term memory than simply studying material by e.g. re-reading, despite the fact that students will be less successful during practice itself (Roediger, 2006). Related: Desirable difficulties, after Bjork.

It also seems to lead to more durable memory (Karpicke and Smith, 2012) and improved learning performance in general (Karpicke and Blunt, 2011) relative to Elaborative encoding-based practice alone.

The testing effect may be diminished or inverted for immediate tests

Format

The testing effect is generally measured to be more pronounced for production tests (short answer, essay) than for discrimination (multiple choice / true-false) (e.g. Kang et al, 2007). This may be due to the Generation effect.

A few cites to follow up on here from Agarwal, P. K., Nunes, L. D., & Blunt, J. R. (2021). Retrieval Practice Consistently Benefits Student Learning: A Systematic Review of Applied Research in Schools and Classrooms. Educational Psychology Review.:

• Carpenter, S. K., Lund, T. J. S., Coffman, C. R., Armstrong, P. I., Lamm, M. H., & Reason, R. D. (2016). A classroom study on the relationship between student achievement and retrieval-enhanced learning. Educational Psychology Review, 28(2), 353–375.
• Niedermeyer, F. C., & Sullivan, H. J. (1972). Differential effects of individual and group testing strategies in an objectives-based instructional program. Journal of Educational Measurement, 9(3), 199–204.
• Weinstein, Y., Nunes, L. K., & Karpicke, J. D. (2016). On the placement of practice questions during study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 22(1), 72–84.

n.b. that Pan, S. C., & Rickard, T. C. (2018). Transfer of test-enhanced learning: Meta-analytic review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 144(7), 710–756 find a medium-large effect (d=0.58) for transfer across initial and final test formats

References

Reviews

Agarwal, P. K., Nunes, L. D., & Blunt, J. R. (2021). Retrieval Practice Consistently Benefits Student Learning: A Systematic Review of Applied Research in Schools and Classrooms. Educational Psychology Review.

Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). The Power of Testing Memory: Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(3), 181–210

Pan, S. C., & Rickard, T. C. (2018). Transfer of test-enhanced learning: Meta-analytic review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 144(7), 710–756, focused specifically on Retrieval practice and transfer learning

Branwen, G. (2009). Spaced Repetition for Efficient Learning. Retrieved December 16, 2019, from https://www.gwern.net/Spaced-repetition

Commentary

Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2018). Reflections on the Resurgence of Interest in the Testing Effect. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617718873

Primary research

• Butler, A. (2010). Repeated Testing Produces Superior Transfer of Learning Relative to Repeated Studying. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1118–1133.
• Kang, S. H. K., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). Test format and corrective feedback modify the effect of testing on long-term retention. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19(4–5), 528–558
• Karpicke, J. D., & Blunt, J. R. (2011). Retrieval Practice Produces More Learning than Elaborative Studying with Concept Mapping. Science, 331(6018), 772–775
• Karpicke, J. D., & Smith, M. A. (2012). Separate mnemonic effects of retrieval practice and elaborative encoding. Journal of Memory and Language, 67(1), 17–29
• van Gog, T., Kester, L., Dirkx, K., Hoogerheide, V., Boerboom, J., & Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L. (2015). Testing After Worked Example Study Does Not Enhance Delayed Problem-Solving Performance Compared to Restudy. Educational Psychology Review, 27(2), 265–289
• Rohrer, D., Dedrick, R. F., Hartwig, M. K., & Cheung, C.-N. (2020). A randomized controlled trial of interleaved mathematics practice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(1), 40–52
• Agarwal, P. (2019). Retrieval Practice & Bloom’s Taxonomy: Do Students Need Fact Knowledge Before Higher Order Learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 189–209
  • Examines relationship between factual learning and higher-order learning; finds that matched practice/test modalities generally does best (consistent with Transfer-appropriate processing); mixed practice may be a good compromise.
• Yeo, D. J., & Fazio, L. K. (2019). The optimal learning strategy depends on learning goals and processes: Retrieval practice versus worked examples. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(1), 73–90

Queue

Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003